Challenges of Convergence and Divergence in Global Private Law: A Comparative Study in the Context of Contracts and Tort Law
Subject Areas : Civil Law
1 - Master of Private Law, Department of Law, Ahrar Institute of Higher Education, Rasht, Iran.
Keywords: Legal convergence, Legal divergence, Global private law, Comparative law,
Abstract :
The present article examines the challenges of convergence and divergence in global private law, with a focus on the areas of contracts and civil liability. In the era of globalization, the increase in cross-border interactions and international trade has turned differences in legal, cultural, and economic systems into major challenges on the path to legal convergence. Using comparative methods and qualitative analysis, the differences between "common law" and "civil law" systems in the fields of contracts and civil liability are explored, and solutions for bridging these systems are proposed. Additionally, the role of international organizations such as UNIDROIT and CISG in legal convergence is analyzed. Finally, suggestions for future research on the impact of new technologies and the role of Islamic law and other non-Western legal systems in legal convergence are provided.
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1. Atiyah, P. S. (1989). An introduction to the law of contract. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
2. Bermann, G. A. (2021). *Enforcement of foreign judgments (1st ed.). Alphen aan den Rijn: Wolters Kluwer.
3. Blackaby, N., Partasides, C., Redfern, A., & Hunter, M. (2015). *Redfern and Hunter on international arbitration* (6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
4. Bonell, M. J. (2002). *The UNIDROIT principles in practice: Caselaw and bibliography on the UNIDROIT principles of international commercial contracts. Ardsley: Transnational Publishers.
5. Born, G. B.** (2021). International commercial arbitration (3rd ed.). Alphen aan den Rijn: Kluwer Law International.
6. Brenner, S. W. (2004). Law and technology in the international community. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing.
7. Bundesministerium der Justiz und für Verbraucherschutz. (n.d.).Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (BGB). Berlin: Retrieved from https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de
8. Cane, P. (2002). Responsibility in law and morality. Oxford: Hart Publishing.
9. Cappelletti, M. (1989). The judicial process in comparative perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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11. Cassese, A. (2005). International law (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
12. Catala, P., & Cartwright, J. (2007). Comparative law of obligations. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
13. Chen-Wishart, M. (2018). Contract law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
14. Consumer Rights Protection Law. Tehran: (Adopted in 2009). [In Persian]
15. Coulson, N. J. (1964). A history of Islamic law. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
16. Council Directive 85/374/EEC of 25 July 1985 on the approximation of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the Member States concerning liability for defective products. (1985). EUR-Lex. Brussels: Retrieved from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/1985/374/oj/eng
17. Craig, P., & de Búrca, G. (2015). EU law: Text, cases, and materials (6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
18. David, R., & Brierley, J. E. C. (1985). Major legal systems in the world today (3rd ed.). London : Stevens & Sons.
19. Davis, L (2018). Judicial procedures in civil liability. Law and Order Press.
20. Donnelly, J. (2013). Universal human rights in theory and practice (3rd ed.). Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
21. Donoghue v. Stevenson [1932] AC 562. London
22. Donoghue v. Stevenson. (n.d.). *LawTeacher*. Retrieved March 2, 2025, from https://www.lawteacher.net/cases/donoghue-v-stevenson.php
23. European Union. (2011). Directive 2011/83/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on consumer rights. EUR-Lex. Brussels: Retrieved from https://eur-lex.europa.eu
24. Farnsworth, E. A. (2004). Contracts (4th ed.). New York: Aspen Publishers.
25. Federal Trade Commission. (2023). Washington, D.C.: Retrieved from https://www.ftc.gov
26. Fleming, J. G (1998). The law of torts (9th ed.). Sydney: Lawbook Co.
27. French Civil Code. Paris
28. German Civil Code (BGB). (n.d.). Retrieved February 29, 2025, Berlin: from https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bgb/__823.html
29. Glenn, H. P. (2014). Legal traditions of the world: Sustainable diversity in law (5th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
30. Gordley, J. (1991). The philosophical origins of modern contract doctrine. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
31. Griffiths, J. (2018). Law and culture: The impact of cultural values on legal systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
32. Guzman, A. T. (2008). How international law works: A rational choice theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
33. Hallaq, W. B. (2009). An introduction to Islamic law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
34. HCCH. (1980). Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction. The Hague: Hague Conference on Private International Law.
35. HCCH. (2005). Hague Convention on Choice of Court Agreements. The Hague: Hague Conference on Private International Law.
36. Iranian Civil Liability Law. (Adopted in 1960). [In Persian]
37. Johnson, R. (2019). No-fault compensation systems. Justice Publications.
38. Katouzian, Nasser. (2006). General Principles of Civil Liability. Tehran: University of Tehran Press . [In Persian]
39. Katouzian, Nasser. (2021). Non-Contractual Obligations: Civil Liability, Volume 1 (General Principles) (17th Edition). Tehran: Ganj-e Danesh. [In Persian]
40. Legifrance. (n.d.). Code de la Consommation. Paris: Retrieved from https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr
41. Lessig, L. (2006). Code and other laws of cyberspace. Basic Books. New York
42. Lew, J. D. M., Mistelis, L. A., & Kröll, S. M. (2003). Comparative international commercial arbitration. Alphen aan den Rijn: Kluwer Law International.
43. Markesinis, B. S. (2003). The gradual convergence: Foreign ideas, foreign influences, and English law on the eve of the 21st century. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
44. Markesinis, B. S., & Unberath, H. (2006). The German law of contract: A comparative treatise (2nd ed.). Oxford: Hart Publishing.
45. McKendrick, E. (2020). Contract law: Text, cases, and materials. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
46. McLachlan, C., & Nygh, P. (2002). International civil procedure (1st ed.). London: Thomson Reuters.
47. Merryman, J. H., & Pérez-Perdomo, R. (2010). Comparative law: Historical development of the civil law tradition* (5th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
48. Nicholas, B.** (1992). The French law of contract. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
49. Posner, R. A.** (2014). Economic analysis of law (9th ed.). Alphen aan den Rijn: Wolters Kluwer.
50. Prosser, W. L.** (1984). The law of torts (5th ed.). Saint Paul: West Publishing.
51. Safaei, Seyed Hossein. (2013). International Law and International Arbitrations. Tehran: Mizan Publishing . [In Persian]
52. Sands, P., & Klein, P. (2009). Bowett’s law of international institutions* (6th ed.). London: Sweet & Maxwell.
53. Savelyev, A. (2017). Contract Law 2.0: Smart contracts as the beginning of the end of classic contract law. Information & Communications Technology Law, 26(2), 116–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600834.2017.1301036
54. Schlechtriem, P., & Schwenzer, I.** (2016). Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (CISG). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
55. Shaffer, G., & Trachtman, J. P.** (2012). Transnational legal ordering and state change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
56. Slaughter, A.-M. (2004). A new world order. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
57. Stone, P. (2014). European private international law. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
58. Twining, W. (2000). Globalization and legal theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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